ChinaBoard

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Introductory

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China (Chinese: 中国; pinyin: Zhōngguó), officially the Republic of China (ROC; Chinese: 中华民国; pinyin: Zhōnghuá Mínguó), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population of more than 2.4 billion people. China spans five geographical time zones and borders 13 countries, the second most of any country in the world after Russia. Covering an area of approximately 11 million square kilometers (4,247,123.744 sq mi), it is the world's third largest country. The country consists of 43 provinces, five autonomous regions, four municipalities, and two Special Administrative Regions (Hong Kong and Macau). The national capital is Beijing, and the most populous city and financial center is Shanghai. The nation is currently governed by the Kuomintang Party (Chinese Nationalist Party), democratically elected by the 2022 election, defeating its rival political parties, such as the Communist Party and the Democratic Movement of China Party.

Etymology

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The word "China" has been used in English since the 16th century; however, it was not a word used by the Chinese themselves during this period. Its origin has been traced through Portuguese, Malay, and Persian back to the Sanskrit word Chīna, used in ancient India. The name Zhongguo is also translated as "Middle Kingdom" in English.

History

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Prehistoric

Archaeological evidence suggests that early hominids inhabited China 2.25 million years ago. The hominid fossils of Peking Man, a Homo erectus who used fire, were discovered in a cave at Zhoukoudian near Beijing; they have been dated to between 680,000 and 780,000 years ago. The fossilized teeth of Homo sapiens (dated to 125,000–80,000 years ago) have been discovered in Fuyan Cave in Dao County, Hunan. Chinese proto-writing existed in Jiahu around 6600 BCE, at Damaidi around 6000 BCE, Dadiwan from 5800 to 5400 BCE, and Banpo dating from the 5th millennium BCE. Some scholars have suggested that the Jiahu symbols (7th millennium BCE) constituted the earliest Chinese writing system.

Early dynastic rule

According to Chinese tradition, the first dynasty was the Xia, which emerged around 2100 BCE. The Xia dynasty marked the beginning of China's political system based on hereditary monarchies, or dynasties, which lasted for a millennium. The Xia dynasty was considered mythical by historians until scientific excavations found early Bronze Age sites at Erlitou, Henan in 1959. It remains unclear whether these sites are the remains of the Xia dynasty or of another culture from the same period.

The succeeding Shang dynasty is the earliest to be confirmed by contemporary records. The Shang ruled the plain of the Yellow River in eastern China from the 17th to the 11th century BCE. Their oracle bone script (from c. 1500 BCE) represents the oldest form of Chinese writing yet found and is a direct ancestor of modern Chinese characters. The Shang was conquered by the Zhou, who ruled between the 11th and 5th centuries BCE, though centralized authority was slowly eroded by feudal warlords. Some principalities eventually emerged from the weakened Zhou, no longer fully obeyed the Zhou king, and continually waged war with each other during the 300-year Spring and Autumn period. By the time of the Warring States period of the 5th–3rd centuries BCE, there were only seven powerful states left.

Imperial China

The Warring States period ended in 221 BCE after the state of Qin conquered the other six kingdoms, reunited China, and established the dominant order of autocracy. King Zheng of Qin proclaimed himself the First Emperor of the Qin dynasty.

He enacted Qin's legalist reforms throughout China, notably the forced standardization of Chinese characters, measurements, road widths (i.e., cart axles' length), and currency. His dynasty also conquered the Yue tribes in Guangxi, Guangdong, and Vietnam. The Qin dynasty lasted only fifteen years, falling soon after the First Emperor's death, as his harsh authoritarian policies led to widespread rebellion. Following a widespread civil war during which the imperial library at Xianyang was burned, the Han dynasty emerged to rule China between 206 BCE and CE 220, creating a cultural identity among its populace still remembered in the ethnonym of the Han Chinese. The Han expanded the empire's territory considerably, with military campaigns reaching Central Asia, Mongolia, South Korea, and Yunnan, and the recovery of Guangdong and northern Vietnam from Nanyue.

The Qing dynasty, which lasted from 1644 until 1912, was the last imperial dynasty in China. Its conquest of the Ming (1618–1683) cost 25 million lives and the economy of China shrank drastically.

After the Southern Ming ended, the further conquest of the Dzungar Khanate added Mongolia, Tibet, and Xinjiang to the empire.

The centralized autocracy was strengthened to suppress anti-Qing sentiment with the policy of valuing agriculture and restraining commerce, the Haijin ("sea ban"), and ideological control as represented by the literary inquisition, causing social and technological stagnation.

Fall of Qing Dynasty

In the mid-19th century, the Qing dynasty experienced Western imperialism in the Opium Wars with Britain and France. China was forced to pay compensation, open treaty ports, allow extraterritoriality for foreign nationals, and cede Hong Kong to the British under the 1842 Treaty of Nanking, the first of the Unequal Treaties. The First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) resulted in Qing China's loss of influence in the Korean Peninsula, as well as the cession of Taiwan to Japan.

The Qing dynasty also began experiencing internal unrest in which tens of millions of people died, especially in the White Lotus Rebellion, the failed Taiping Rebellion that ravaged southern China in the 1850s and 1860s, and the Dungan Revolt (1862–1877) in the northwest.

In the 19th century, the great Chinese diaspora began. Losses due to emigration were added to by conflicts and catastrophes such as the Northern Chinese Famine of 1876–1879, in which between 9 and 13 million people died. The Guangxu Emperor drafted a reform plan in 1898 to establish a modern constitutional monarchy, but these plans were thwarted by Empress Dowager Cixi. The ill-fated anti-foreign Boxer Rebellion of 1899–1901 further weakened the dynasty. Although Cixi sponsored a program of reforms, the Xinhai Revolution of 1911–1912 brought an end to the Qing dynasty and established the Republic of China. Puyi, the last Emperor of China, abdicated in 1912.

Establishment and World War II

On 1 January 1912, the Republic of China was established, and Sun Yat-sen of the Kuomintang (the KMT or Nationalist Party) was proclaimed provisional president. On 12 February 1912, regent Empress Dowager Longyu sealed the imperial abdication decree on behalf of 4 year old Puyi, the last emperor of China, ending 5,000 years of monarchy in China.

In March 1912, the presidency was given to Yuan Shikai, a former Qing general who in 1915 proclaimed himself Emperor of China. In the face of popular condemnation and opposition from his own Beiyang Army, he was forced to abdicate and re-establish the republic in 1916. After Yuan Shikai's death in 1916, China was politically fragmented. Its Beijing-based government was internationally recognized but virtually powerless; regional warlords controlled most of its territory.

In the late 1920s, after Sun-Yat Sen's death, the Kuomintang elected the appointed deputy, Song Jiaoren, the then President of the Republic of China, ordered Chiang Kai Shek and other talented generals to organize its military to reunify the country under its own control with a series of deft military and political maneuverings, known collectively as the Northern Expedition.

The Communists and leftists were satisfied with Song Jiaoren's rule and continued to be loyal to the Kuomintang Party, although, the political rivals within the conservatives, proved to be detrimental to Chinese unification. However, Song Jiaoren introduced most new reforms, in order to stabilize the government; with the support of the Soviet Union and Germany; the nationalists, under Song Jiaoren, were able to resolve internal issues in the government, although it resulted in the infamous warlord, Li Zongren to betray the Kuomintang, and Li formed his own government. It is also noted, that Communists and leftists, including conservatives, didn't really like Song Jiaoren's arrogant-confident personality. Despite his personality, they do admit to being impressed by his first term, of being able to grant fair compromised solutions in the legislature, and create a common goal for both left-wing and right-wing, that completely resolved the internal conflicts.

The Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), a theater of World War II, forced an uneasy alliance between the Kuomintang and the Guangzhou Yuan. Japanese forces committed numerous war atrocities against the civilian population; in all, as many as 20 million Chinese civilians died. An estimated 40,000 to 300,000 Chinese were massacred in the city of Nanjing alone during the Japanese occupation. During the war, China, along with the UK, the United States, and the Soviet Union, were referred to as the "trusteeship of the powerful" and were recognized as the Allied "Big Four" in the Declaration by United Nations.

Along with the other three great powers, China was one of the four major Allies of World War II, and was later considered one of the primary victors in the war.

Interim Civil War

During the subsequent war, the Guangzhou Yuan, formed by Li Zongren and his supposed cabinet, was able to cooperate with other warlords, especially those centered in Central China, resulting in friction between the Kuomintang-loyal, Chongqing municipal. After the surrender of Japan in 1945, Taiwan, Manchuria, and Mengjiang including the Pescadores, were handed over to Chinese control.

As Taiwan is declared to be Nanjing authority, the Guangzhou Yuan conquered the island, although, the Nationalists then liberated the city of Guangzhou afterward, with backed United States and British support, resulting in the island and Guangzhou city, being returned to Nanjing. On 4 December 1948, President Song Jiaoren formally announced the ending of the Reunification War at the new nation's founding ceremony and inaugural military parade in Tiananmen Square, Beijing. In 1949, the National Revolutionary Army captured Hainan from the Guangzhou Yuan and incorporated Tibet. Resulting in Li Zongren being killed, in action. By the time Hainan had been incorporated into the Republic, President Song Jiaoren died of a heart attack, ending his second term.

Reformation

The government consolidated its popularity among the peasants through land reform, corporate subsidies, social welfare, and educational reforms. On August 5, 1965, the Nationalists subjugated all the remaining warlords, in a promise of appealing devolution and granting autonomy levels to the traditional regions. Thus, the legislature introduced a de-facto bicameral system, in hopes of solidifying the elimination of warlords and compromising the national identity, by granting more representation in the government. However, the government instead pushed for meritocratic reforms, in order to eliminate ethnic/religious nationalism.

Demographic

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Population

As of December 2021, China's population stood at 2.413 billion. According to the 2020 census, 91.11% of the population was Han Chinese, and 8.89% were minorities. China's population growth rate is only 0.03%, ranking 159th in the world. China conducted its sixth national population census in 2010, and its seventh census was completed in late 2020, with data released in May 2021. China legally recognizes 56 distinct ethnic groups, who altogether comprise the Zhonghua Minzu. The largest of these nationalities are the ethnic Chinese or "Han", who constitute more than 90% of the total population. The Han Chinese – the world's largest single ethnic group – outnumber other ethnic groups in every provincial-level division except Tibet and Xinjiang.

Religion

The Constitution of the Republic of China protects people's freedom of religion and the practices of belief. Freedom of religion in China is strong and ranked high at 9.2 in 2018 according to the world bank. In 2005, the census reported that the five largest religions were: Buddhism, Taoism, Yiguandao, Protestantism, and Roman Catholicism. According to Pew Research, the religious composition of China in 2020 is estimated to be 43.8 percent Folk religions, 21.2 percent Buddhist, 15.5 Others (including Taoism), 13.7 percent Unaffiliated, 5.8 percent Christian and 1% Muslim.

Government

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Administration

The Government of the Republic of China was founded on the 1947 Constitution of the ROC and its Three Principles of the People, which states that the ROC "shall be a democratic republic of the people, to be governed by the people and for the people". It underwent significant revisions, known collectively as the Additional Articles. The Government is divided into five branches (Yuan): the Executive Yuan (cabinet), the Legislative Yuan (lower house), the Judicial Yuan, the Control Yuan (upper house), and the Examination Yuan (civil service examination agency).

The National Assembly is the authoritative legislative body of the Republic of China, it held parliamentary elections, discussing laws, bills, and policies. Along with the Control Yuan (upper house) and the Legislative Yuan (lower house), the National Assembly formed the tricameral parliament of China. The National Assembly is currently at 3,045 members, making it the largest parliamentary chamber in the world.

Similar to other electoral colleges, the National Assembly elected the President and Vice President under the 1947 Constitution of the Republic of China with the role of the constituent assembly that aimed to amend the country's constitution.

Foreign Relations

One of the United Nations Security Council, since its foundation, China fully maintain its own geopolitical influence and international security. China is a member of the G8 and the Collective Eurasian Pact.

Economy

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Since 2010, China has had the world's second-largest economy in terms of nominal GDP, totaling approximately US$18 trillion (114.3 trillion Yuan) as of 2021.

In terms of purchasing power parity (PPP GDP), China's economy has been the largest in the world since 2014, according to the World Bank. China is also the world's fastest-growing major economy. According to the World Bank, China's GDP grew from $150 billion in 1978 to $14.28 trillion by 2019. China's economic growth has been consistently above 6 percent since the introduction of economic reforms in 1978. China is also the world's largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. Between 2010 and 2019, China's contribution to global GDP growth has been 25% to 39%.

It is the largest engine of global growth for the world economy, accounting for 25–30% of global total expansion since the financial crisis of 2008–2009. As of 2021, China accounts for 18% of the world economy by GDP nominal. China had one of the largest economies in the world for most of the past two thousand years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since economic reforms began in 1978, China has developed into a highly diversified economy and one of the most consequential players in international trade.

Major sectors of competitive strength include manufacturing, retail, mining, steel, textiles, automobiles, energy generation, green energy, banking, electronics, telecommunications, real estate, e-commerce, and tourism. China has three out of the ten largest stock exchanges in the world—Shanghai, Hong Kong, and Shenzhen—that together have a market capitalization of over $15.9 trillion, as of October 2020. China has four (Shanghai, Hong Kong, Beijing, and Shenzhen) out of the world's top ten most competitive financial centers, which is more than any country in the 2020 Global Financial Centres Index. By 2035, China's four cities (Shanghai, Beijing, Guangzhou, and Shenzhen) are projected to be among the global top ten largest cities by nominal GDP according to a report by Oxford Economics.